Home. Company. Technology. Products. News. Investors. Contact.
 

Summary
Question & Answer
Photo Album
Oxygen Depletion

Contributed paper to the
HYDROGEN INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE HY2000
Munich, Germany, September 11 to 15, 2000
revised version dated September 18, 2000
critical comments are solicited.

 

ALARMING OXYGEN DEPLETION CAUSED BY
THE COMBUSTION OF HYDROGEN PRODUCED VIA
RIGENERATING METHODS OR
ELECTROLYTIC SEPARATION OF WATER VIA
FOSSIL FUELED ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

Ruggero Maria Santilli
 President
Institute for Basic Research
P. O. Box 1577, Palm Harbor, FL 34682, U.S.A.
Tel +1-727-934 9593, Fax +1-727-934 9275, e-address ibr@gte.net


Abstract
We recall that the use of hydrogen as fuel does resolve the environmental problems of fossil fuels due to excessive emissions of carcinogenic substances and carbon dioxide. However, the combustion of hydrogen originating from regeneration processes (e.g., from natural gas) implies the permanent removal from our atmosphere of oxygen in a directly usable form, a serious environmental problem called oxygen depletion, since the combustion turns hydrogen and oxygen into water whose separation to restore the original oxygen balance is prohibitive due to cost. We then show that a conceivable global use of hydrogen from the indicated regeneration origin in complete replacement of fossil fuels would imply the permanent removal from our atmosphere of 2.8875x107 metric tons of O2 /day, with consequential termination of all life forms in our planet in a few years. The use of hydrogen from the electrolytic separation of water via electricity originating from fossil fueled power plants has essentially the same environmental drawbacks (excessive carcinogenic emission, production of carbon dioxide, and oxygen depletion). The only environmentally acceptable hydrogen as fuel is that originating from the separation of water via clean primary energy sources, such as wind, solar energy, and other emerging clean new energies. In addition to the above environmental problems, hydrogen does not possess sufficient energy density to permit its use in a compressed form for automotive use, thus requiring its liquefaction with related notorious increase of cost and complexity for transportation, storage, delivery, and use. Fuel cells are briefly discussed to point out the existence of similarly serious environmental problems, as well as limited efficiency because of insufficient energy density of the fuel and other reasons. To resolve these problems, we propose the upgrading of hydrogen into the new combustible fuel called magnegas TM, which is essentially a magnetically upgraded form of hydrogen into new clusters called magnecules. This new chemical species essentially permits the achievement of an energy density sufficient for automotive use in an ordinarily compressed form. Since magnegas is produced from the recycling of liquid wastes of fossil or biomass origin, it can be synthesized in a form which is rich in oxygen from the liquid wastes themselves (rather than from the atmosphere), thus having a positive oxygen balance, that is, the oxygen produced in the exhaust is bigger than that used for the combustion. Moreover, magnegas exhaust has no carcinogenic or other toxic substances, and a considerably reduced emission of carbon dioxide. We also discuss the possibility of further reducing such carbon dioxide emission via disposable, CO2-absorbing sponges in the exhaust. We finally point out that the efficiency of the magnegas reactors is at least ten times bigger than that of current methods of hydrogen production, thus implying a significant reduction of production costs besides the reduction of costs due to the elimination of liquefaction. In view of these and other features, magnegas appears to be an excellent upgrading of hydrogen for direct combustion or use in fuel cells, either in its currently produced form, or via the extraction of its magnetically polarized hydrogen content. We finally indicate that the new magnegas technology permits the processing of crude oil in the reactors, by producing a fuel dramatically cleaner than gasoline, at a cost visibly smaller than that due to refineries. In conclusion, crude oil, hydrogen, and fuel cells remain indeed fully admissible in this new era of environmental concern, provided that they are treated via a basically new technology whose quantitative study requires a new chemistry, called Hadronic chemistry.

As is well known, gasoline combustion requires atmospheric oxygen, which is then turned into CO2 and various HydroCarbon (HC). In turn, CO2 is recycled by plants via the known reaction
H2O + CO2 +(hv) -> O2 + (-(CH2O)-), which restores oxygen in the atmosphere. Essentially this was the scenario at the beginning of the 20th century. The same scenario at the beginning of the 20th century is dramatically different, because forests have rapidly diminished while we have reached the following unreassuringly daily consumption of crude oil

74.18 million of barrel per day =                           (1)
 =  (74.18 million barrels/24h)x(55 gallons/barrel) = 4.08x109 gallons/24h
= 1.54x 1013 cc/24h (using 4 quarts/gallon and 946 cc/quart) =
= (4.08 x 109 gallons)x(4 qrt./gallon)x(946 cc/qrt.)/day  = 1.5438 x 1013 cc/day
= (1.5438 x 1013 cc/day)x(0.7028 grams/cc)= 1.0850 x 1013 grams octane/day
= (1.0850 x 1013 grams)/(114.23 grams/mole) = 9.4984 x 1010 moles n-octane/day,

(see, e.g., http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/energy.html) where we have replaced, for simplicity, crude oil with a straight chain of n-octanes CH3-(CH2)6-CH3 with the known density of 0.7028 g/cc at 20o C. It should be indicated that data (1) do not include the additional large use of natural gas and coals, which would bring the daily combustion of all fossil fuel to the equivalent of about 120 million barrels of crude oil per day.
 The primary environmental problems caused by the above disproportionate consumption of fossil fuel per day are the following:

            1) Excessive emission of carcinogenic and other toxic substances in the combustion exhaust. It is well known by experts that gasoline combustion releases in our atmosphere the largest percentage of carcinogenic and other toxic substances as compared to any other source. The terms "atmospheric pollution" are an euphemism for very toxic breathing.

            2) Excessive release of carbon dioxide. It is evident that, under the very large daily combustion (1), plants cannot recycle the entire production of CO2, thus resulting in an alarming increase of CO2 in our atmosphere, an occurrence known as green house effect. In fact, by using the known reaction
C8H18 + (25/2)O2 -> 8 CO2 + 9 H2O, we have the following alarming daily production of CO2 from fossil fuel combustion:

(9.4984 x 1010 moles C8H18)x(8/1)/day = 7.5987 x 1011 moles CO2/day =
= (7.5987 x 1011 moles) x (0.044 Kg/mole)/day= 3.3434 x 107 Kg/day =             (2)
= (3.3434 x 1010 Kg/day)/(1000 Kg/metric ton) = 3.3434x107 metric tons/day

It is evident that plants cannot possibly recycle such a disproportionate amount of daily production of CO2. This has implied a considerable increase of CO2 in our atmosphere which can be measured by any person seriously interested in the environment via the mere purchase of a CO2 meter, and then compare current readings of CO2 with standard values on record, e.g., the percentage of CO2 in our atmosphere at sea level in 1950 was 0.033 % ± 0.01 % (see, e.g., Encyclopedia Britannica of that period). Along these lines, in our laboratory in Florida we measured a thirty fold increase of CO2 in our atmosphere over the indicated standard. We assume the reader is aware of recent TV reports of; an occurrence, which has never been observed before. Increasingly catastrophic climactic events are known to everybody.

            3) Excessive removal of directly usable oxygen from our atmosphere, an environmental problem of fossil fuel combustion, which is lesser known than the green house effect, even among environmentalists, but potentially more serious. The problem is called oxygen depletion, and refers to the difference between the oxygen needed for the combustion less that expelled in the exhaust. By using again the reaction C8H18 + (25/2)O2 -> 8 CO2 + 9 H2O and data (2), it is easy to obtain the following additionally alarming daily use of oxygen for the combustion of fossil fuel

(9.4984 x 1010 moles octane/day)x(12.5 moles O2/1 mole octane) =
= 1.1873 x 1012 moles of O2/day = (1.1873 x 1012 moles of O2)x(0.032 Kg/mole O2)=         (3)
= 3.7994 x 1010 kg O2/day  = 3.7994 x 107 metric tons/day.

Again, this large volume of oxygen is turned by the combustion into CO2 of which only an unknown part is recycled by plants into usable oxygen. Thus, the actual and permanent oxygen depletion caused by fossil fuel combustion in our planet is currently unknown. However, it should be indicated that the very existence of the green house effect is unquestionable evidence of oxygen depletion, because we are dealing precisely with the quantity of CO2 which has not been re-converted into O2 by plants.
           
Oxygen depletion is today measurable by any person seriously interested in the environment via the mere purchase of an oxygen meter, measure the local percentage of oxygen, and then compare the result to standards on record, e.g., the oxygen percentage in our atmosphere at sea level in 1950 was 20.946% ± 002% (see, e.g., Encyclopedia Britannica of that period). Along these lines, in our laboratory in Florida we measure a local oxygen depletion of 3%-5%. Evidently, bigger oxygen depletions are expected for densely populated areas, such as Manhattan, London, and Tokyo, or at high elevation. We assume the reader is aware of the recent decision by U.S. airlines to lower the altitude of their flights despite the evident increase of cost. This decision has been apparently motivated by oxygen depletion, e.g., fainting spells due to insufficient oxygen suffered by passengers during flights at previous higher altitudes.

The purpose of this note is to indicate that, whether used for direct combustion or in fuel cells, hydrogen produced from regeneration methods (e.g., from natural gas) does avoid the release carcinogenic substances and carbon dioxide in the exhaust, but causes an alarming oxygen depletion which is considerably bigger than that caused by fossil fuel combustion under the same energy output. This depletion is due to to the fact that gasoline combustion turns atmospheric oxygen into CO2 part of which is recycled by plants into O2, while hydrogen combustion turns atmospheric oxygen into H2O. This process permanently removes oxygen from our atmosphere in a directly usable form due to the excessive cost of water separation to restore the original oxygen balance.

By assuming, for simplicity, that gasoline is solely composed of one octane  C8H18, thus ignoring other isomers, the combustion of one mole of H2 gives 68.32 Kcal, while the combustion of one mole of octane produces 1,302.7 Kcal. Thus, we need 19.07 = 1302.7 / 68.32 moles of H2 to produce the same energy of one mole of octane.

In turn, the combustion of 19.07 moles of H2 requires 9.535 moles of O2, while the combustion of one mole of octane requires 12.5 moles of O2. Therefore, on grounds of the same energy release, the combustion of hydrogen requires less oxygen than gasoline (about 76% of the oxygen consumed by the octane).

The alarming oxygen depletion occurs, again, because of the fact that the combustion of hydrogen turns oxygen into water, by therefore permanently removing usable oxygen from our planet. When used in modest amounts, the combustion of hydrogen constitutes no appreciable environmental problem. However, when used in large amounts, the combustion of hydrogen produced via regenerative methods is potentially catastrophic on environmental grounds, because oxygen is the foundation of life.

At the limit, a global combustion of hydrogen of regenerating origin in complete replacement of fossil fuels would render our planet uninhabitable in a short period of time. In fact, such a vast use would imply the permanent removal from our atmosphere of 76% of the oxygen currently consumed to burn fossil fuels, i.e., from Eqs. (2) and (3), we would have the following permanent oxygen depletion due to global hydrogen combustion:

76% oxygen used for fossil fuel combustion =                      (4)
= 2.8875 x 107 metric tons O2 depleted/day.                           

In addition, one should take into account the quantitatively similar oxygen depletion caused by the production of electricity, resulting in a truly catastrophic oxygen depletion which would imply the termination of any life on Earth within a few years.
            
Predictably, the above feature of hydrogen combustion has alarmed environmental groups, labor unions, and other concerned people. As an illustration, calculations show that, in the event all fuels in Manhattan were replaced by hydrogen, the local oxygen depletion would cause heart failures, with evident large financial liabilities and legal implications for hydrogen suppliers.
           
In addition to the above catastrophic oxygen depletion, hydrogen produced via regenerating processes has additional, equally serious environmental problems of carcinogenic and CO2 emission pointed out by P. Spath and M. Mann of the U. S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory at the recent International Hydrogen Energy Forum 2000 [1].
           
The combustion of hydrogen produced from the electrolytic separation of water via electricity originating from conventional power plants, has similar environmental problems. In fact, the original separation of the water, and its subsequent recombination in the combustion does indeed preserve the original oxygen balance. However, an oxygen depletion greater than that of Eq. (4) is caused by the combustion of fossil fuels to produce the electricity needed for the separation of water. Moreover, the combustion of fossil fuels in primary power plants implies the emission of large amounts of carcinogenic substances and carbon dioxide. As a result, the automotive use of hydrogen whose production requires electricity originating from conventional power plants is more polluting than gasoline.
           
The only environmentally acceptable use of hydrogen as fuel is that produced via the separation of water whose electricity originates from clean, renewable, primary sources of energy, such as wind and solar energies, as suggested by the BMW Group for their hydrogen powered car [2]. Unfortunately, the latter sources of primary energy have insufficient production capabilities for large scale automotive use of hydrogen. This scenario implies that the primary environmental problems currently rest with primary sources of energy, thus suggesting primary research efforts in the search of new clean energy for the production of electricity.

In addition to the above serious environmental problems, hydrogen has the further drawback of having an energy density which is insufficient for its use in a compressed form to power automobiles, thus requiring its liquefaction [2]. This creates additional costs (besides those for the currently available inefficient production methods), as well as serious logistic and technological problems in the infrastructures needed for the production, transportation, delivery, and use of liquid hydrogen. Moreover, the use of hydrogen as fuel for conventional engines implies the loss of about 35% in power as compared to gasoline use in the same engine [2].
           
In summary, even when of environmentally acceptable origin, hydrogen has insufficient energy density, insufficient energy output, and excessive cost.

An inspection of fuel cells reveals essentially the same scenario. If hydrogen from regeneration methods is used as fuel, we have the above indicated oxygen depletion. If, instead, we use more complex fuels, we are back to essentially the original problems caused by fossil fuels. Moreover, one should note that the limited energy output of fuel cells sees its ultimate origin in the insufficient energy density and output of hydrogen.
           
The main open issue created by the above scenario is: since pure hydrogen produced via regeneration methods is potentially catastrophic on a large scale use whether as direct fuel or in fuel cells, and hydrogen originating from clean renewable primary sources has a rather limited production potential, how can hydrogen be upgraded to a form avoiding the oxygen depletion while improving fossil fuel emission? It is easy to see that this question does not admit an industrially and environmentally acceptable answer via the use of conventional gases. For instance, the addition of CO to H2 in a 50-50 mixture would leave the oxygen depletion unchanged. In fact, each of the two reactions H2 + (1/2) O2 -> H2 and CO + (1/2) O2 -> CO2 requires 1/2 mole of O2.Therefore, the 50-50 mixture of H2 and CO would also require 1/2 mole of O2, exactly as it is the case for the pure H2.

After studying the above problems for years, the only answer know to this author is that of upgrading hydrogen into a new combustible gas, called magnegasTM [3] (international patents pending), which is produced as a by-product  in the recycling of liquid waste (such as automotive antifreeze and oil waste, city and farm sewage, etc.) or the processing of carbon-rich liquids (such as crude oil, etc.) . The new technology, called PlasmaArcFlowTM (international patents pending), is essentially based on flowing liquids through a submerged electric arc with at least one carbon electrode. The arc essentially decomposes the liquid molecules into a plasma at 7,000o F composed of mostly ionized H, O and C atoms, plus solid precipitates. The technology then controls the recombination of H, O and C into a combustible gas with a new chemical species, tentatively called magnecules [4], which is currently under study.
           
A first peculiarity of Magnegas nonexistent in other gases, is that, following numerous tests in analytic laboratories, its chemical structure cannot be identified via conventional Gas Chromatographic Mass Spectrometric (GC-MS) measurements, since it results to be constituted by large clusters (all the way to 1,000 a.m.u. in molecular weight) which remain completely unidentified by the MS. The chemical structure of magnegas is equally unidentifiable via InfraRed Detectors (IRD), because the new clusters composing magnegas have no IR signature at all, thus suggesting a bond of non-valence type (because these large clusters cannot possibly be all symmetric) [4]. Moreover, the IR signature of conventional molecules such as CO and CO2 result to be mutated with the appearance of new peaks, which evidently indicate new internal bonds. These features establish that magnegas has an energy content considerably bigger than that predicted by quantum chemistry, since it can store energy in three different levels: magnecules, molecules, and new internal molecular bonds. As a result, the combustion of conventional fuels can be conceived as that of a single stage rocket, while the combustion of magnegas can be referred to the burning of a multi-stage rocket, with intriguing new features.
           
In view of the above occurrences, quantitative scientific studies of Magnegas are beyond the capabilities of quantum chemistry. A broader theory suitable for scientific studies of the new chemical species and the combustion of the new gas has been developed by R.M. Santilli and D.D. Shillady under the name of Hadronic chemistry [5,6] (see also papers [7]).
           
Scans of the same sample of Magnegas at different times shows different magnecules, a phenomenon called Magnecule Mutation. The effect is expected to be due to collisions among Magnecules, resulting fragmentations due to their large size, and their subsequent recombination’s with other fragments. This results in macroscopic changes of the MS peaks for the same gas under the same GC-MS test, only conducted at different times. These mutations have identified the presence in the clusters of individual atoms of H, O and C, plus ordinary molecules H2, CO, and O2 [4,5]. The estimated conventional composition of magnegas produced from antifreeze waste consists of about 40%-45% hydrogen, 55%-60% carbon monoxide, the rest being composed by traces of oxygen and carbon dioxide. It should be stressed that the percentage of hydrogen in Magnegas depends from the liquid used for its production, the highest percentage being expected from crude oil. Evidently, small traces of light HC are possible in ppm, but no heavy HC is possible in magnegas since the gas is created at 7,000o F of the electric arc. The lack of existence of heavy HC is confirmed by the lack of activation of catalytic converters during the combustion.
           
As a working hypothesis in the absence of a more accurate knowledge, it is conjectured that the very intense magnetic fields in the microscopic vicinity of 1,000-3,000 DC Amps of the submerged electric arc (which can be as high at 1014 Gauss at distances of 10-8 cm) cause a polarization of the orbits of at least the valence electrons from a spherical into a toroidal configuration, resulting in strong magnetic fields estimated to be 1,415 times nuclear magnetic fields [4,7a]. It is then expected that strongly polarized individual atoms and molecules bond together like little magnets, resulting in clusters, which are stable at ordinary conditions. Since the new bonds do not appear to be of valence type (or any of its variations), they can only be of electric, magnetic, or electromagnetic nature. The new clusters are called magnecules because of the dominance of magnetic over other effects in their creation, while electric effects are generally unstable, and often repulsive (as it is the case of ions).
           
Besides direct calculations [4,7a], the magnetic polarization of the atoms and molecules constituting Magnegas is further supported by a number of indirect effects, such as the capability of Magnegas to stick to instruments walls, called magnecule adhesion. As an illustration, following the removal of Magnegas from a GC-MS and its conventional flushing, the background preserves all the anomalous peaks of Magnegas. This occurrence can only be interpreted numerically via adhesion due to induced magnetic polarization, and not via electrostatic, coordination, and other effects.
           
Mutatis mutandae, stable clusters can only exist under a sufficiently strong attractive force, which must be numerically identified for a model to have sufficient depth. Among all possible non-valence bonds, the magnetic attraction among polarized valence orbits is the only model available at this writing with a concrete attractive bond, while all other models lack such an identification (as it is the case for electric effects, coordination effects, co-valence, etc.). Due to the implications here at stake, the study of alternative structures of the new clusters in magnegas is warmly recommended, provided that, again, the attractive force creating the clusters is specifically and numerically identified, and models based on pure nomenclatures without explicit content are avoided.
           
The new chemical species of magnecules has important implications for alternative fuels. To begin, it is easy to see that magnetically polarized hydrogen must have an energy density bigger than that of un-polarized hydrogen, precisely in view of the clustering of conventional hydrogen molecules into magnecules. As a result, under a sufficient magnetically polarization, hydrogen acquires the necessary energy density to avoid liquefaction as automotive fuel, as proved by U.S.Magnegas, Inc., with various cars fueled by compressed magnegas with sufficient range [3]. Therefore, the new chemical species of magnecules eliminates the need of liquefaction, with consequential dramatic advantages in costs, production, storage, delivery, and use of hydrogen.
           
Moreover, also under sufficient magnetic polarization, compressed hydrogen has an energy output equivalent to that of gasoline, as also proved by USMagnegas, Inc., with a bivalent car running on gasoline and compressed magnegas [3]. Therefore, the new chemical species of magnecules eliminate the power loss in the transition from gasoline to alternative fuels.
           
In addition, the new PlasmaArcFlow Reactors producing magnegas have an independently certified commercial over-unity of at least 6 [3, that is, for each unit of electrical energy calibrated at the panel, the reactors produce up to six units of energy as a combination of the energy contained in magnegas and heat. The additional five units of energy originate from the liquid waste. Therefore, magnegas reactors are capable of tapping energy from molecules in essentially the same way as nuclear reactors tap energy from nuclei.
           
This large commercial over-unity of magnegas reactors should be compared to the under-unity of the conventional means for the production of hydrogen, which rarely reach the actual value of 0.8 [2]. As a result, magnegas permits a dramatic reduction in the cost of hydrogen production,. while avoiding liquefactions as engine fuel, and having a power output similar to that of gasoline.
           
Moreover, the new chemical species of magnecules permits the additional advantage of synthesizing a fuel rich in oxygen originating from the liquid waste, rather than from the atmosphere. In particular, the combustion of magnegas has a positive oxygen balance, that is, the oxygen produced in the exhaust is bigger than that used in the combustion.
           
In fact, the magnegas combustion exhaust has a conventional chemical structure, because the exhaust temperature is beyond the Curie point of magnecules. As a result, all magnecules and other anomalies are removed by the combustion.  Following numerous tests, including various conversions of automobiles to run on magnegas, we have the following combustion exhaust of Magnegas measured before the catalytic converter in percentages:

water vapor about 65%-70%; Oxygen 9.5%-10.5%; CO2 6%-8%              (5)
CO 0.00%-0.01%; HC minus 2 to minus 5 ppm; rest atmospheric


           
As one can see, the upgrading of hydrogen into Magnegas: 1) turns the oxygen depletion caused by hydrogen combustion into a positive oxygen balance; 2) eliminates carcinogenic or toxic substance in the exhaust; and 3) implies a significant reduction of carbon dioxide emission over that for fossil fuels. In particular, magnegas exhaust meets the most stringent governmental requirements without a catalytic converter, while having a positive oxygen balance.
           
Preliminary magnegas exhaust measurements have been recently conducted at the EPA Certified, Vehicle Certification Laboratory Liphardt & Associates of Long Island, New York, via the Varied Test Procedure (VTP) as per Regulation 40-CFR, Part 86 on a Honda Civic Natural Gas Vehicle VIN number 1HGEN1649WL000160, produced in 1998 (and purchased new in 1999) to operate with Compressed Natural Gas (CNG). This car was converted by USMagnegas, Inc., Largo, Florida, to operate on Compressed MagneGas (CMG) via: 1) the replacement of CNG with CMG; 2) the disabling of the oxygen sensor (because Magnegas has 20 times more oxygen in the exhaust than natural gas); and 3) installing a multiple spark system (to improve combustion); while leaving the rest of the car unchanged, including its computer.
           
The tests consisted of the conventional EPA routine for Regulation 40-CFR, Part 89, consisting of three separate and sequential tests conducted on a computerized dynamometer, the first and the third tests using the car at its maximal possible capability to simulate an up-hill travel at 60 mph, while the second test consists in simulating normal city driving of the car. Three corresponding bags with the exhaust residues are collected, jointly with a fourth bag containing atmospheric contaminants. The final measurements expressed in grams/mile are given by the average of the measurements on the three EPA test bags, less the measurements of atmospheric pollutants in the fourth bag.
           
The results of the above preliminary tests on Magnegas exhaust are:

HYDROCARBONS:
0.026 gram/mile = 93.6% reduction of the EPA standard of 0.41 gram/mile

CARBON MONOXIDE:
0.262 gras/mile = 92.6% reduction of the EPA standard of 3.40 grams/mile

NITROGEN OXIDES:
0.281 gram/mile = 29.7% reduction over the EPA standard of 0.4 gm/mi

CARBON DIOXIDE:
235 grams/mile - there is no EPA standard on CO2 at this moment;

OXYGEN:
not measured because not requested in Regulation 40-CFR, Part 86.


The following comments are important for an appraisal of the above results:

1) Magnegas does not contain heavy HC since it is created at 7,000o F. Therefore, the measured HC is expected to be due, at least in part, to combustion of oil, either originating from magnegas compression pumps (thus contaminating the gas), or from engine oil. New tests are under way in which magnegas is filtered after compression, and all oils of fossil fuels origin replaced with synthetic oils.

 2) Carbon monoxide is fuel for Magnegas (while being a combustion product for gasoline). Therefore, any presence of CO in the exhaust is evidence of insufficient combustion.

 3) The great majority of measurements (6) originate from the first and third parts of the test at extreme performance, because, during ordinary city traffic, Magnegas exhaust is essentially pollutant free, as shown in Figure 1.

 4) Nitrogen oxides are not due, in general, to the fuel (whether Magnegas or other fuel), but to the temperature of the engine, thus being an indication of the quality of its cooling system. Therefore, for each given fuel, including Magnegas, NOx's can be decreased by improving the cooling system and other means.

 5) Measurements (6) do not refer to the best possible combustion of Magnegas, but only to the combustion of Magnegas in a vehicle whose carburetion was developed for natural gas. Alternatively, the test was primarily intended to prove the interchangeability of Magnegas with natural gas without any major automotive changes, while keeping essentially the same performance and consumption. The measurements under combustion specifically conceived for Magnegas are under way, and will be released in the near future.

           
We should also indicate considerable research efforts under way to further reduce the CO2 content via suitable cartridges of disposable chemical sponges placed in the exhaust system. Admittedly, these catalytic means generally implies the creation of acids harmful to the human skin, if released in the environment. However, the ongoing research aims at the chemical and/or technological resolution of these problems. Additional research is under way via liquefied Magnegas obtained via catalytic or conventional liquefaction, which is expected to have an anomalous energy content with respect to other liquid fuels, and an expected, consequential decrease of pollutants. As a result of these efforts, the achievement of an exhaust essentially free of CO2 appears to be within technological reach.
           
As a comparison for measurements (6), a similar Honda car running on indolene (a version of gasoline) was tested in the same laboratory with the same EPA procedure, resulting in the following data:
 
 HYDROCARBONS:
 0.234 gram/mile  =  900% Magnegas emission

 CARBON MONOXIDE:
 1.965 gram/mile  =  750% of Magnegas emission

 NITROGEN OXIDES:
 0.247 gram/mile = 86% of Magnegas emission

 CARBON DIOXIDE:
 458.655 grams/mile = 195% of Magnegas emission,

which illustrates the environmental superiority of magnegas over gasoline.

The improvement of emission by Magnegas over the above data are, therefore, evident.
           
Other features favoring the upgrading of pure hydrogen into MagnegasTM (international patents pending) are:
 
1) Magnegas is cost competitiveness with respect to fossil fuels (since it is produced as a byproduct of an income-producing recycling);
 
2) Magnegas increases the energy content from about 300 BTU/cf for hydrogen to about 800-900 BTU/cf (due to the new means of energy storage);
 
3) Magnegas is more readily available anywhere desired (since easily transportable PlasmaArcFlow reactors as big as a desk produce up to 1,500 cf of magnegas per hour, i.e, a production in one hour sufficient for about three hours city travel by a compact car);
 
4) Magnegas admits easier liquefaction, e.g., via Fischer-Tropsch catalytic synthesis or conventional liquefaction (due to attractions between magnecules);
 
5) Magnegas has a better penetration through membranes (due to measured decreases of average molecular sizes of magnetically polarized conventional molecules);
 
6) Magnegas can be used for any conventional fuel application, including metal cutting, cooking, automotive use, etc.
 
7) Magnegas can be used in fuel cells, by preserving its environmental advantages.
           
Above all, the magneGas technology appears to permit an ultimate merger of crude oil and hydrogen technologies. One of the best liquids usable in the PlasmaArcFlow reactors is crude oil, which is then turned into a fuel much cleaner than gasoline (plus usable heat and solid precipitates) at a cost visibly smaller than that that via huge refineries. The fuel produced by the above new processing of crude oil is over 50% hydrogen.
           
In conclusion, crude oil, hydrogen, and fuel cells remain indeed fully admissible in this new era of environmental concern, provided that they are treated via a basically new technology whose quantitative study requires a new chemistry, Hadronic chemistry [1-5].

 


Acknowledgments. The author would like to thank D. D. Shillady, of the Chemistry Department of Virginia Commonwealth University, U.S.A.,and A. K. Aringazin, of the Department of Theoretical Physics, Karaganda State University, Kazakhstan. Particular thanks are also due to all member of USMagnegas, Inc., for invaluable assistance without which this paper could not have seen the light of the day. Special thanks are finally due to various participants of the International Hydrogen Energy Conference HY2000 for invaluable critical comments.

 


FIGURE 1: An illustration of the city part of the EPA test according to Regulation 40-CFR, Part 86, conducted at the Vehicle Certification Laboratory Liphardt & Associates of Long Island, New York on a Honda Civic Natural Gas Vehicle converted to MagneGas. The first three diagrams illustrate the very low combustion emission of MagneGas in city driving, by keeping in mind that most of measurements (6) are due to the heavy duty, hill climbing part of the EPA test. Even though 29.7% of EPA standard, the fourth diagram on nitrogen oxides is an indication of insufficient cooling of the engine. The bottom diagram indicates the simulated speed of the car versus time, where flat tracts simulate idle portions at traffic lights. By keeping in mind: 1) the lack of (heavy) hydrocarbon in magnegas (because produced at 7,000o F of the electric arc); 2) the expectation of no appreciable carbon monoxide in the magnegas exhaust under proper combustion (because CO is fuel for magnegas); 3) the possible further reduction of carbon dioxide via disposable sponges placed in the exhaust systems; 4) the decrease of nitrogen oxides with a more efficient engine cooling and other improvements; and 5) the positive oxygen balance of magnegas (not measured in the test because not included in current EPA regulations); the measurements depicted in this diagram indicate that the achievement of a truly clean fuel with a positive oxygen balance is indeed within technological reach.

FIGURE 2: A view of the Honda Civic Natural Gas Vehicle converted to MagnegasTM which has been used for EPA tests at the Vehicle Certification Laboratory, Liphardt & Associates of Long Island, New York.

 

References

[1] P. Spath and M. Mann, A Complete Look at the Overall Environmental Impact of Hydrogen Production, Proceedings of HY2000, page 523 EFO Energy Forum GmbH, 2000.

[2] D. Frank, J. Wolf, and K. Pehr, Visions Come True: BMW Hydrogen Vehicles lead the Way, Proceedings of HY2000, page 181, EFO Energy Forum GmbH, 2000.

[3] http://www.magnegas.com/

[4] R. M. Santilli, Hadronic Journal 21, 789 (1998).

[5] R. M. Santilli and D. D. Shillady, Ab Initio Hadronic Chemistry, Hadronic Press, Florida (2000)

[6] R. M. Santilli and D. D. Shillady, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy  24, 943 (1999), and 245, 173 (2000).

[7] M. G. Kucherenko and A. K. Aringazin, Hadronic Journal 21, 895 (1998). M. G. Kucherenko and A. K. Aringazin, Hadronic Journal 22, 1 (2000).A. K. Aringazin, Hadronic Journal  22, 43 (2000).

 

 

 

 

 




 
home  |  company  |  technology  |  products  |  news  |  investors  |  contact © 2007 MagneGas Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Site created by :nf